Abuse of Hick's Law

[Van Canna]

Good points Mike…so much to consider.

If any training at all I'd say cheap and fast because of budgets and keeping feet on the street.

Maybe so…but it depends on the organization…just like any martial arts or similar organization…we have the good ones and the slipshod.

I have many friends in the State Police, FBI and ATF.

They relate very specialized training on the matters in discussion, including the force continuum concept _also been derided here as unworkable because of 'randomness'

And they indicate that they do avail themselves of outside ‘contractors’ --- ‘consultants’ with specialized knowledge….the experts we have seen derided here time and again.

Here is one example: 9-11 K9 INTERNATIONAL & 9-11 U.S. HOMELAND SECURITY CORP.

BELOW IS JUST A SMALL EXQAMPLE OF SOME OF THE TRAINING WE HAVE DONE IN 2005 -06
Federal Bureau of Investigation Weapons of Mass Destruction Coordinator
Contingency Plans, Planning, FBI Resources, Response on Local, Regional and National Levels, Roles of the Weapons of Mass Destruction Coordinator, Anthrax Attacks, WMD Crisis Response, SWAT Tactics, Evidence Response Teams, Presidential Directives, Nuclear, Biological Devices, Chemical Weapons Warfare, Impact of Attacks, Industrial Chemicals, Information & Analysis of Intelligence,
Threat Assessment Credibility, Scientific Assistance, Courses of Action, Coordination and Notification of Agency's, Interagency Threat Assessment & Participants, FBI Threat Assessment, Hazardous Materials Response Unit, Crisis Negotiations, Hostage Negotiations, Bomb Data Center, Explosives.

Dave Young with a forum on this site, as an example, has been involved with training police forces for years. John Farnam of DTI and Mas Ayoob of LFI …likewise.

If they can produce a curriculum, training dates, was it official or after hours, and how many hours for each course taught I'd consider it.

Fair enough…simply write to them requesting this information.

What has proven to work in the mean streets for these people and why?
Are you saying there is a universal course of study that has proven to work 100%?

NO…what I am saying is what is most likely to work and why…and why do the organizations ‘Go’ with that. Nothing works 100% …not even solid center mass hits by a .45 pistol.

I am not saying that these guys aren't good at what they do or knowledgeable, but they are not at a level where their every word should be taken as fact/law/word of God without question.

I did not say ‘Question’ I said passing ‘judgment’ …

Questions are good…we are doing this here…but we don’t ‘judge’ unless we have participated and found out for ‘ourselves’ that what we learned does not work by individual experience. Very simple.

Then the same can be applied to any claims of martial arts expertise by teachers of different karate styles, including our teachers in our own style.

[Van Canna]

http://www.defense-training.com/whatis.html

As a defensive weapons and tactics instructor John Farnam will urge you, based on your own beliefs, to make up your mind in advance as to what you would do when faced with an imminent and unlawful lethal threat. You should, of course, also decide what preparations you should make in advance, if any. Defense Training International wants to make sure that their students fully understand the physical, legal, psychological, and societal consequences of their actions or inactions.

It is our duty to make you fully aware of certain unpleasant physical realities intrinsic to the Planet Earth. Mr. Farnam is happy to be your counselor and advisor, but once he is satisfied that you are adequately cognizant of the perils indigenous to this world and the options available to deal with them, he will leave you to make the hard decisions for yourself.

With that in mind, let us confront some unpleasant realities:

It is difficult for non-criminals to conceive of the depths of depravity to which some of their fellow human beings have sunk and the wanton savagery of which they are apparently capable.

However, we must all, in our own way, come to terms with the reality of evil and its animated presence in sociopathic personalities.

Our response can range from myopic pacifism to precipitous over-reaction. Neither extreme is desirable. A carefully planned, prepared and controlled stratagem, consistent with one’s own personal beliefs, is usually the best solution.

John S. Farnam, president of Defensive Training International, is considered the top handgun instructor in the nation. He has personally trained thousands of federal, state and local law enforcement personnel as well as civilians in the tactical use of firearms.

In addition, he has authored three books on the subject -- "The Farnam Method of Defensive Handgunning," "The Farnam Method of Defensive Shotgun and Rifle Shooting" and "The Street Smart Gun Book".

[Van Canna]

1. John S. Farnam, president of Defensive Training International, is considered the top handgun instructor in the nation. He has personally trained thousands of federal, state and local law enforcement personnel as well as civilians in the tactical use of firearms.

When training under him _ Maloney and I also learned that he has trained LEO organizations overseas...and that he has personally stopped criminals [killed] in gunfights during his police duties.

2. As a defensive weapons and tactics instructor John Farnam will urge you, based on your own beliefs, to make up your mind in advance as to what you would do when faced with an imminent and unlawful lethal threat.

You should, of course, also decide what preparations you should make in advance, if any.

Defense Training International wants to make sure that their students fully understand the physical, legal, psychological, and societal consequences of their actions or inactions.

It is our duty to make you fully aware of certain unpleasant physical realities intrinsic to the Planet Earth. Mr. Farnam is happy to be your counselor and advisor, but once he is satisfied that you are adequately cognizant of the perils indigenous to this world and the options available to deal with them, he will leave you to make the hard decisions for yourself.

~~

He doesn’t push himself on you. It is us who make the decision as to what preparations we need and why.

So the question remains: What makes us cognizant of the perils indigenous to this world and the options available to deal with them?

It is a look within….so many may think they are aware and well prepared… and that’s fine.

[Van Canna]

http://www.defense-training.com/leo/index.html

[MikeK]

I'm going to use this thread as a place to define, learn about and discuss terms, theories and laws that get used (or misused) by martial artists. I figure if we're going to use them and base what we do on them, then we should at least have a little accurate knowledge of them.

Let's look at Yerkes-Dodson.

Here's the original text. Includes descriptions of the experiments and charts.

In connection with a study of various aspects of the modifiability of behavior in the dancing mouse a need for definite knowledge concerning the relation of strength of stimulus to rate of learning arose. It was for the purpose of obtaining this knowledge that we planned and executed the experiments which are now to be described. Our work was greatly facilitated by the advice and assistance of Doctor E. G. MARTIN, Professor G. W. PIERCE, and Professor A. E. KENNELLY, and we desire to express here both our indebtedness and our thanks for their generous services.

The habit whose formation we attempted to study quantitatively, with respect to the strength of the stimulus which favored its formation, may be described as the white-black discrimination habit. Of the mice which served as subjects in the investigation it was demanded that they choose and enter one of two boxes or passage-ways. One of the boxes was white; the other black. No matter what their relative positions, the subject was required to choose the white one. Attempts to enter the black box resulted in the receipt of a disagreeable electric shock. It was our task to discover (1) whether the strength of this electric stimulus influences the rapidity with which dancers acquire the habit of avoiding the black passage-way, and if so, (2) what particular strength of stimulus is most favorable to the acquisition of this habit.

As a detailed account of the important features of the white-black visual discrimination habit in the dancer has already been published,[1] a brief description of our method of experimentation [p. 460] will suffice for the purposes of this paper. A sketch of the experiment box used by us in this investigation appears as fig. 1, and a ground plan of the box with its electric attachments, as fig. 2.

[MikeK]

The Temporal Dynamics Model of Emotional Memory Processing: A Synthesis on the Neurobiological Basis of Stress-Induced Amnesia, Flashbulb and Traumatic Memories, and the Yerkes-Dodson Law

One problem that cropped up is that sections of Y-D got missed.

Check this link for a comparison of what is called Y-D and what Y-D actually showed.
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articl ... gure&id=F2

A comparison of the Hebbian version of the Yerkes-Dodson law, as it has been commonly represented for the past 50 years (a), and the original version, based on the actual findings and theorizing of Yerkes and Dodson ([38]; (b)). The Hebbian version incorrectly states that high levels of stress, anxiety, or motivation produce a monolithic impairment of performance. The original version based on the actual [38] Yerkes-Dodson findings takes into account the finding that strong emotionality can enhance performance under “simple” learning conditions, such as when learning involves focused attention on a restricted range of cues, and impairs performance under more complex or challenging learning situations, such as in divided attention, multitasking, and working memory tasks. Graph (a) is adapted from 5 decades of publications and books, for example, Hebb [53], Loftus [54], and Radvansky [55].

http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articl ... gure&id=F2

A recent study provides an example of the application of the Hebbian version of the Yerkes-Dodson law to behavioral neuroscience research. Andreano and Cahill [77] found an inverted-U-shaped relationship between cortisol levels and memory consolidation in people, that is, an intermediate level of cortisol correlated with peak memory performance. These investigators stated that their findings were consistent with the Yerkes-Dodson law, which, according to them, would predict that there should be a curvilinear relationship between cortisol levels and memory performance (pages 467–469). Actually, the Yerkes-Dodson law does not make this prediction. The Yerkes-Dodson law, in its original form, would predict that on simple tasks, stress levels of cortisol should enhance memory, and on more complex tasks, stress levels of cortisol should impair memory. Consequently, Andreano and Cahill's findings are relevant, specifically, towards enhancing our understanding of the stress side of the curvilinear component of the Yerkes-Dodson law. A more thorough understanding of how cortisol interacts with memory would need to address how high levels of cortisol (or corticosterone, the rodent form of cortisol) and drugs that activate cortisol receptors interact with task difficulty to impair, as well as enhance, memory consolidation (Sandi et al. [79]; Sandi [80]; Cordero and Sandi [81]; Buchanan and Lovallo [82]; Cordero et al. [83]; Rimmele et al. [84]; Hui et al. [85]; Het et al. [86]).

[MikeK]

A problem with “task difficulty” as a critical factor in understanding emotion-memory interactions is that it is a subjective measure. It is therefore difficult, if not impossible, to operationally define the term “task difficulty” with objective criteria. Nevertheless, investigators over the past 5 decades have taken on this task. One of the earliest attempts to understand how task variables interact with performance was accomplished in a landmark paper by Easterbrook [103], in one of the most comprehensive and insightful analyses of how emotion affects cognition. Easterbrook assessed the influence of emotionality on cue utilization and the organization of behavior. He noted that strong emotionality “acts consistently to reduce the range of cues that an organism uses, and that the reduction in the range of cue utilization influences action in ways that are either organizing or disorganizing” (page 183). “On some tasks, reduction in the range of cue utilization under high stress conditions improves performance. In these tasks, irrelevant cues are excluded and strong emotionality is motivating. In other tasks, proficiency demands the use of a wider range of cues, and strong emotionality is disorganizing. There seems to be an optimal range of cue utilization for each task” (pages 197-198). Importantly, Easterbrook interpreted these observations as an indication that “the effect of emotionality on proficiency would depend on the complexity of the task studied” (page 187). Easterbrook emphasized that performance on only the most demanding and complex tasks would suffer a “disintegration” (i.e., severe impairment) as a result of strong emotionality (page 187; text in italics are paraphrased). He noted that there was an impairment in behavioral performance in complex tasks in response to strong emotionality because “the range of cue utilization is reduced in response to strong emotion” (page 197), and that “tasks requiring the use of smaller numbers of cues were facilitated by drive increments” (page 192).

Easterbrook's cue utilization hypothesis stated that with increased emotionality, there is a reduction in the range of cues that an individual can process. According to Easterbrook, if a task is complex, that is, involves attention to multiple cues, then performance will deteriorate under conditions of high stress. If, on the other hand, a task is simple, that is, involves focused attention to a single cue, as occurs, for example, with the “weapon focus” phenomenon (Christianson [29]; Safer et al. [104]; Pickel [105]), then performance will improve under high-stress conditions.

Easterbrook's approach towards identifying systematic relationships between cue utilization and emotionality has been fruitful in understanding how emotionality affects behavioral performance in people and rodents (Telegdy and Cohen [48]; Geen [106]; Cohen et al. [107]; Christianson [29]; Hanoch and Vitouch [72]). Thus, Easterbrook's cue utilization hypothesis and the original version of the Yerkes-Dodson law are complementary explanations for the finding that strong emotionality can enhance performance on a simple task and impair performance on a complex task.

We will return to the challenge of how to distinguish simple versus complex levels of task difficulty and how they relate to performance in a later section addressing the cognitive functions of the prefrontal cortex. First, we will review literature on the effects of stress on synaptic plasticity in different forebrain structures, and then we will present a physiological model which may prove to be of value in explaining how stress can impair memory and can also generate flashbulb memories.

More later...

[MikeK]

The relationship between stress effects on the PFC, hippocampus, amygdale, and the Yerkes-Dodson law has been alluded to throughout this paper. For example, we have emphasized how the PFC (and related frontal areas) is involved in complex tasks that require working memory, executive processing, decision making, and divided attention. Therefore, the extent to which the PFC is involved in a task and the degree to which the PFC is suppressed by emotionality are primary determinants of whether a task's arousal-performance curve will be linear or curvilinear. That is, if the successful completion of a task requires PFC functioning, then performance on that task is likely to suffer under conditions of high arousal. One example of an application of this strategy is the finding that high states of anxiety have little to no effect on performance in simple, single-digit, mental calculations, which place minimal demands on PFC-based working memory capacity. Ashcraft [410] has shown that when people perform more complex mental calculations, such as double-digit calculations, which tax working memory and thereby increase PFC involvement in the task, they are more susceptible to be impaired by anxiety. It is notable that even single-digit calculations could be made susceptible to impairments by anxiety when a PFC-dependent component, decision-making, was included in the calculations (Ashcraft [410]). Therefore, one strategy with which to operationalize the distinction between “simple” and “complex” tasks is to determine whether the task involves a PFC-mediated component. We would suggest that, as a general rule, tasks that require the involvement of the PFC, which can be confirmed to some degree by neuroimaging techniques (Callicott et al. [411]; Ranganath et al. [412]; Taylor et al. [368]; Ranganath and D'Esposito [413]; Curtis [371]), should all exhibit the curvilinear component of the Yerkes-Dodson law.

The mechanistic basis of the PFC-mediated curvilinear component of the Yerkes-Dodson law is well studied. A number of researchers have commented on the inverted-U-shaped relationship between dopamine receptor signaling in the prefrontal cortex and working memory performance (Arnsten et al. [414]; Murphy et al. [415]; Cai and Arnsten [416]; Arnsten [363]; Arnsten [417]; Brunel and Wang [418]; Dreher et al. [419]; Yamashita and Tanaka [420]; Williams and Castner [421]; Tanaka et al. [422]). The common finding among these studies is the importance of an intermediate, that is, optimal, level of dopaminergic (D1) receptor activation to enable working memory tasks to be accomplished. Stress, pharmacological treatments, or mental disease states (Russell [423]; Levy [383]; Jay et al. [9]; Anderson et al. [424]) that involve either an excessive increase or decrease in dopaminergic activity result in an impairment in working memory performance (Arnsten [363]; Williams and Castner [421]).

An inverted-U function has also been described for the relationship between locus coeruleus (LC) activity and performance in an attentional task (Aston-Jones et al. [62]; Aston-Jones et al. [64]). In the work by Aston-Jones' group, behavioral performance was impaired in animals with high levels of LC activity, perhaps because the task required sustained attention with distracting stimuli. Overall, there is strong support for the idea that intermediate levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in the PFC are an important component of efficient performance on complex tasks (Arnsten [363]; Williams and Castner [421]).

The second component of the Yerkes-Dodson law is the enhancement of performance under high levels of stress in relatively simple tasks (Figure 2(b)). If, for example, a task involves focused attention to an isolated cue with minimal cognitive (decision-making) demands, then performance may not only be unimpaired, it can even be enhanced, under conditions of high arousal. The well-described “weapon-focus” phenomenon, as well as fear conditioning in rats, illustrates a situation that involves an almost complete absence of decision making, multitasking, and peripheral attention (Christianson [29]; Conway et al. [425]; Safer et al. [104]; Pickel [105]). In threatening situations, there may be a great enhancement of memory for the sole focus of attention, such as the weapon that threatened someone's life, with perhaps impaired memory for other cues on the periphery of a person's attention (Christianson [29]; Safer et al. [104]; Pickel [105]). This shift in focus from thoughtful decision making to one of highly focused attention with rapid processing has clear adaptive value, enabling an individual to devote attentional resources (and maximal hippocampal and amygdaloid memory processing) to life-threatening stimuli in times of danger (Mineka Öhman [426]; Flykt [427]).

As a first step in understanding how emotion enhances learning in simple tasks, consider the repercussions of the suppression of the PFC by strong emotionality. Descending projections from the PFC appear to provide an inhibitory influence over lower brain structures involved in emotionality, such as the amygdala, dorsal raphe and hypothalamus (Arnsten and Goldman-Rakic [428]; Sesack and Pickel [429]; Rempel-Clower and Barbas [430]; Hajós et al. [431]; Quirk and Gehlert [432]; Quirk et al. [433]; Milad et al. [434]; Likhtik et al. [379]; Amat et al. [388]). A consequence of the loss of PFC-mediated inhibition is that these structures will exhibit greater activation in times of strong emotionality, thereby enhancing their throughput. For example, the release of PFC-mediated inhibition over locus coeruleus cell activity will increase norepinephrine release throughout the forebrain, which would be manifested behaviorally as an enhancement of attention, and physiologically as enhanced memory-related neuroplasticity in the amygdala and hippocampus (Izquierdo and Medina [435]; Roozendaal [436]; McGaugh [437]; Strange and Dolan [222]; Hurlemann et al. [223]; Bremner [100]). Indeed, we would speculate that it is the release of PFC inhibition over brain stem and amygdala activity which would enable the great enhancement and focusing of attention towards threatening cues (Berridge et al. [438]).

Finally, errors in emotional memory processing are not attributable solely to an impairment of PFC function. Flaws in emotional memories have been a subject of extensive research, which has great relevance in clinical and legal settings, involving issues including, for example, the credibility of repressed memories (Loftus [439]; Loftus and Polage [440]) and eyewitness testimony (Loftus [441]; Sparr and Bremner [422]). Elsewhere, we have commented on the functional consequences of how acute stress appears to simultaneously enhance plasticity in the amygdala and impair plasticity in the hippocampus (Vouimba et al. [140]). One potential repercussion of the opposing effects of stress on these two structures is that in times of strong emotionality, amygdala plasticity is enhanced, thereby intensifying the emotional memory of an experience. However, if the enhancement of the amygdala processing occurs at a time when the hippocampus is in the stress-induced inhibitory period (Figure 3, phase 2), then the stress-induced impairment of hippocampal functioning could compromise the accuracy of the details of the emotional memory, despite an individual's great confidence in its veracity (Talarico and Rubin [443]; Wolters and Goudsmit [444]; Coluccia et al. [445]). Therefore, in addition to the reduced involvement of the PFC in controlling cognition in times of strong emotionality, reduced functioning of the hippocampus while it is in the phase 2 state, as well, contributes to the impairment of performance at the right side of the curvilinear component of the Yerkes-Dodson law.

In conclusion, a century after the passage of the Yerkes-Dodson law and almost 50 years after the publication of Easterbrook's cue utilization hypothesis, cognitive psychology and behavioral neuroscience research have provided an in-depth perspective on the neurobiological basis of how emotion interacts with memory formation. We have applied this research to develop a synthesis which addresses the linear and curvilinear components of the Yerkes-Dodson law. We have proposed that the enhancement of memory under high stress conditions is subserved by the rapid and coordinated activation of hippocampal-amygdaloid circuitry, in conjunction with a suppression of the PFC. The emotional-induced enhancement of hippocampal and amygdaloid processing favors rapid processing of distinct cues with minimal demands on decision making, which is typified by phenomena such as weapon focus and flashbulb memories in people and fear conditioning in rats. We have also suggested that the high (declining) end of the curvilinear component of the Yerkes-Dodson law is generated largely by a stress-induced suppression of PFC functioning (see also Kensinger and Corkin [446] for related discussion). Our model predicts, therefore, that performance on all tasks that require the involvement of the PFC would suffer at times of strong emotionality. However, a complete understanding of the neurobiological basis of the curvilinear versus linear components of the Yerkes-Dodson law will require additional investigation of how stress rapidly enhances, and then suppresses, hippocampal functioning.

[MikeK]

This is an interesting piece of work that shoots some holes into some interpretations of Y-D and also goes into the startle reflex.

Stress, Cognition, and Human Performance: A
Literature Review and Conceptual Framework
By
Mark A. Staal
Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California

Arousal, Activation, and Energetical Theories
Yerkes-Dodson and Arousal Theory
One of the earliest theories that attempted to provide a comprehensive framework was arousal theory.
Razmjou (1996) provided us with a definition for arousal that seems to encompass most perspectives:

“Arousal is a hypothetical construct that represents the level of central nervous system activity along a behavioral continuum ranging from sleep to alertness.” (p. 530). Stokes and Kite (2001) have also suggested that arousal be considered, “the basic energetic state of an organism.” (p. 113).
Combined, these definitions provide an adequate foundation for understanding the rather general and nonspecific nature of arousal as it is typically discussed in the research literature. As this theory states,arousal mobilizes and regulates the human stress response. Everyday living informs us that various events and conditions elicit a response. This response frequently incorporates physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dimensions. As arousal theory would assert, what facilitates this response is an energetical or activation system that is general and nonspecific. Although the rousal
response is multidimensional, historically, physiological markers have dominated its measurement.
To understand how the scientific community first came to support arousal theory we must go back to the turn of the twentieth century, specifically to the work of Yerkes and Dodson (1908).
Yerkes and Dodson examined mice involved in a simple learning task. The task put before the mice was to learn to discern a white from a black doorway and pathway (and to refrain from walking down the black pathway). Thus performance was measured by how many attempts the mice made prior to learning that exploring the dark pathway was not a good idea. Electric shock was the aversive stimulus used to shape the animals’ behavior. Although it is unclear as to how well these shocks were
calibrated, different intensities of shock were used to study the effect they had on the mice’s learning. The results of this study suggested that when mice are shocked with high-intensity electricity, they are quicker to go the other way, in this case through the white doorway and down the white path, than when one uses low-intensity shocks. This became the first Yerkes-Dodson principle, later becoming a “law” of performance.
Over time this finding, and others, led to the postulate that moderate levels of arousal (often used synonymously with stress) will result in optimal performance, whereas too little arousal or too much arousal will degrade performance -- a curvilinear relationship sometimes termed an inverted U. This general assertion seems to make intuitive sense to most people. In fact, this notion, and arousal theory in general, have likely gained such success for this very reason—it seems as though that’s the way it should be. After all, if one lacks motivation or even the most modest amount of arousal to stay focused and get going, one’s performance on various tasks is likely to suffer. The inverse of that is equally compelling, with too much exertion or strain, our performance is likely to decrease. But does
it accurately portray what science says about stress and performance? The answer is…not exactly.

[MikeK]

A new look at stress.

http://www.hendonpub.com/publications/a ... r+Articles

[Bill Glasheen]

Mike

I don't think any of this is "new" to folks in my field (systems physiology). It's just that most people have problems thinking in a multidimensional space. The early "Inverted U" work was meant only to make a simple point. But things obviously are more complex than that. Grossman in fact talks about this to some extent in On Combat.

I read enough of the article to realize I need to give it more time. Will be back. Thanks for posting!

- Bill

[MikeK]

I found what she had to say interesting, though I wish she listed some sources. I like sources.

I tossed it in this thread as it fits with the previous material.

Anxiety and Task Complexity
Let’s define two terms of anxiety. Trait anxiety is a person’s general predisposition to respond across many situations with high levels of anxiety. State anxiety is a person’s anxiety at a particular moment. Generally, the higher the trait anxiety, the higher the state anxiety.

Task complexity is influenced by a number of components and is broken down into three categories. First is decision characteristics (number of decisions necessary, number of alternative decisions, speed of decisions necessary, required sequence of decisions). Second is perception characteristics (number of stimuli needed, number of stimuli present, duration of stimuli, intensity of stimuli, and clarity of correct stimulus among conflicting stimuli).

Third is motor act characteristics of the skill (number of muscle actions needed to execute the skill, the amount of coordination of actions required, precision and steadiness required, and fine motor skills required).

Based on a point system to determine the overall “complexity score” of any given task, the higher the complexity score, the lower the stress level should be for optimal performance. Conversely, the lower the complexity score, higher levels of stress are acceptable to successfully complete the task.

Hence, someone performing a very complex task who also happens to have high trait anxiety and high state anxiety will perform worse than someone who has low state and trait anxiety performing a simple skill. Even Yerkes and Dodson a century ago realized that each person would have his own individualized “Optimal Performance Zone” based on personality and task complexity characteristics.

Relating this to police positions, a SWAT team would certainly want a “calm, cool and collected” personality on the trigger of a sniper rifle and an adrenaline-pumped muscle-head on the business end of a battering ram. At any rate, Siddle’s basic concepts had a positive influence on police physical skills training in that skill simplicity with teaching physical skills was emphasized (gross motor skills) as well as controlling stress via influencing heart rate by controlling respiration.

IZOF Model
Because humans are so different and complex, attempting to categorize or generalize an optimal performance zone to one specific heart rate range would be virtually impossible. Rather than trying to reinvent the wheel, the police profession may be better off looking to the athletic profession in terms of improving physical and mental skills under elevated stress levels. When comparing athletes to officers and operators, both must perform physically and cognitively well while experiencing elevated stress.

Skill level, training, and physical fitness all affect performance, and there are consequences to poor performance, although more severe in the police profession with the potential loss of life. Professional athletic organizations have spent millions of dollars developing techniques and systems for improving physical and mental performance under stress. Why not tap into that which has already been developed?

In the IZOF Model, or the “Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning,” personality characteristics, maturity level, trait anxiety, state anxiety, coping skills, task complexity and skill proficiency all play a part in determining one’s performance levels and optimal zones.

Additionally, these zones are not without change and will cultivate based on personal development, physical skill improvement, maturity, and practical experience. This, of course, is much more complex and difficult than the simple Inverted-U Theory with definitive heart rate zones plopped onto the graph, but human performance is very complex!

Added link as original is no longer valid.
Vonk